Writing Clearly and Concisely
APA Manual Chapter 3 and Supplemental Material
3.01-3.03
3.01 Length
less is more
3.02 Headings
Hierarchy
Equal importance to same level headings
Avoid having 1 subsection in heading
3.03 Levels of heading
Assume introduction, no header
3.04 Seriation
Numbers
Ordinal emphasis
1.
Bullets
Squares or circles
Alphabets
(a), (b), (c)
Organization of key points within sections, paragraphs, and sentences
Itemized conclusions or steps in a procedure
3.05 Continuity in Presentation of Ideas
http://larae.net/write/transition.html
http://writing2.richmond.edu/writing/wweb/trans1.html
http://www.smart-words.org/transition-words.html
Words
Concepts
Thematic development
Punctuation
Transition
Pronouns
Time links (then, after)
Cause-effect links (therefore, consequently)
Addition links (moreover, furthermore)
Contrast links (but, conversely)
3.06 Smoothness of Expression
Abruptness
Transition
Consistent use of verb tense
Past tense-results
Present tense-implications and conclusions
Careful hyphenation
Choose synonyms with care
3.07 Tone
Envision the reader
Be clear and direct, but also interesting and compelling.
Be professional.
Non-combative
Ex.
Chan (2010) did not address
Chan (2010) completely overlooked
3.08 Economy of Expression
Use short words and sentences.
Say only what needs to be said (p. 67).
Redundancy
They were both alike
a total of 68 participants
instructions, which were exactly the same as those used
absolutely essential
has been previously found
small in size
one and the same
completely unanimous
period of time
Wordiness
Unit Length
Sentences
Paragraphs
3.09 Precision and Clarity
Word Choice
Say what you mean, mean what you say
Feel vs. think or believe
Like vs. such as
Colloquial expressions
Write up vs. report
Expressions of quantity
Quite a large part
Practically all
Very few
Jargon
Is it necessary to be technical?
Clearly define term
Monetarily felt scarcity vs. poverty
Pronouns
Be sure referent is clear
This, that, these, those
This test, that trial, these participants
Comparisons
Avoid ambiguity
Ten year olds were more likely to play with age peers than eight year olds
Attribution
Third person
Use a personal pronoun
We reviewed the literature vs. the authors reviewed the literature
Anthropomorphism
No human characteristics associated to animals or innate objects
Pairs of rats vs. rat couples
Researchers controlled for versus the experiment controlled for
Editorial we
Only use we to refer to self and co-authors
We usually attempt to be clear in writing.
As researchers, we usually.
3.10 Linguistic Devices
Heavy alliteration
Rhyming
Poetic expressions
Clichs
Metaphors
Use sparingly
Figurative expressions
Use with caution
APA Style Tutorial
http://www.apastyle.org/learn/tutorials/basics-tutorial.aspx
Literature Review
Empirical reports designed to:
Test a theory
Reveal a qualifier of an existing effect
Resolve conflicting findings
Contrast two theories against each other
Link two previously unconnected bodies of research
Extend prior work in some theoretically meaningful way
Empirical reports require a review of the literature that already exists
Allows you to familiarize yourself with current theories, trends, concepts in specific area of interest whats already been done? What still needs to be accomplished? What interpretations have others offered?
Enables you to understand and evaluate the findings of previous researchers in order to plan for future research allows you to add to body of knowledge
Provides a rational for your hypothesis
Provides a foundation for your study
Benefits of reviewing the literature
Helps clearly define your area of interest or research problem
Allows you to discover new approaches by reviewing what has been done and not done
Avoids approaches of replicating past research that has been shown to be futile
Gain insight into previous methods, measures, approaches
Find recommendations for future research
Gain knowledge about a particular area of interest
Approaches to literature reviews
Choose an area of interest, read all relevant studies and organize in a meaningful way
Choose an organizing theme or point that you want to make and select your studies accordingly
Choosing a topic
Choose a topic of current interest
Narrow the topic
Write about something that interests you
Example of focusing a research topic:
autism (much too broad)
Description of autistic children (still too broad)
Symptoms of autistic children and emotionally disturbed children (getting there but still a little too broad)
Create a controlling question such as what are the theories explaining autism? How well do the theories fit the symptoms?
What literature do you review?
Empirical (database) studies
Review articles
Theoretical articles
Methodological articles
Case studies
Books
Chapters
Government documents
On-line documents
Okay, now where do I get the literature?
Journal databases
World Wide Web
Dissertations
Unpublished reports
Basic literature search strategies using electronic databases
State your topic in a sentence or question
Choose effective keywords or short phrases
Use a shortcut (truncation symbol) for variant word endings (e.g., *, ?,:, !)
Connect the keywords using ORs or ANDs
Basic Search Process
Plan search
Choose database(s)
Select words to represent concepts
Construct strategy
Perform search
Review results
Change strategy if necessary
Search again
Print or download or e-mail results
Strategies to adjust if too many or too few records
Too many?
Limit years of publications
Require one or more keywords to be in article title
Use proximity operators (ex: Psychosocial NEAR intervention)
Too few?
Include more terms
Separate phrases
Use truncation (ex: autis* instead of autistic or autism)
Choose a different database
Examples of databases
Academic Search Premier
CHINAHL Plus with Full Text
ERIC
MEDLINE
PsycARTICLES
PsycINFO
ProQuest Research Library (1988-)
Social Work Abstracts
SocINDEX with Full Text
Web of Knowledge
ProQuest Digital Dissertations (1861-)
Rehabilitation Counseling Journals
American Counseling Association (ACA) Journal of Counseling and Development
American Rehabilitation Counseling Association (ARCA)
Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin
National Rehabilitation Association (NRA)
Journal of Rehabilitation
National Rehabilitation Counseling Association (NRCA) Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling
National Council on Rehabilitation Education (NCRE)
Rehabilitation Education
New title is pending: Rehabilitation Research, Policy and Education (est. January 2011)
Finding testing (measurements) information
Mental Measurements Yearbook
HaPI (Health and Psychosocial Instruments)
Journal articles
CIMC resources (http://cimc.education.wisc.edu)
Internet resources
http://buros.unl.edu/buros/jsp/search.jsp
Use the librarys resources
http://www.lib.subr.edu/databases_az.html
Psychinfo
A few tips
Be aware of bias, dont get all your articles from one source
articles from one journal or by same author
articles that were available on PDF or HTML files that could be conveniently downloaded.
Remember!
Your literature review will reflect your knowledge of the topic you are writing about be as thorough as you can
I have my articles. Now what?
Read them carefully
Scan them first
Then read for depth
Allow enough time to understand and digest the material
Summarize key findings in your own words
Critically Analyzing the Literature
Abstract
Authors description of the study
Related to your area of interest?
Conclusions relevant
Statement of the problem
restatement of the topic
Problem stated clearly?
Purpose?
Significance?
Hypothesis or research question
Clearly stated?
Relevant?
Related to your area of interest?
Assumptions
Explicit assumptions?
Implicit assumptions?
Similar to yours?
Critically Analyzing the Literature
Method
Research design?
Population & sample?
Measurement?
Procedures?
Findings
Do they make sense?
What do they say in regards to your area of interest?
Discussion
Presented clearly?
Meaningful interpretations?
Implications discussed?
Suggestions or recommendations?
Limits to practical application
Conclusion
What did you learn?
Restate your new knowledge in your own words
Writing the Literature Review
Number of articles reviewed –
Published articles may cite over 100 studies. Fortunately, most professors require fewer than 20. Since a student literature review is usually less than exhaustive, it is important that the most representative articles are chosen.
Length student papers are usually 8 20 pages long (double spaced). However, check with your instructor for specific requirements.
Writing – continued
How to proceed
Get comfortable
Start off with a research question and gradually narrow it to the specific lines of research you are discussing
Describe each article & compare them
Evaluate the work done state strengths and weaknesses based on evidence make recommendations for future research
Dont start writing too soon
Leave time for breaks
Use specific language & support your arguments with concrete examples
Paraphrase dont quote
Evaluate what you report synthesize the research vs. just describing it.
Avoid plagiarism give credit where credit is due
Writing – continued
Organization
Introduce research question
Briefly outline the organization of the paper
Describe studies in detail
Compare and evaluate studies
Discuss implications of studies (your judgment of what the studies show and where to go from here)
Headings delineate major sections
Writing tips
Budget sufficient time for first draft
Make an appointment with yourself
Establish a quiet space where you wont be interrupted
Set aside a few hours for each writing session
Writing tips (continued)
What is the goal of your paper? Write it down and keep it visible. It will help you stay focused
What are the steps necessary for you to reach that goal? Write them down and be specific.
Estimate the time it will take for you to do each step and multiply by 3
Carry around a small notebook so you can write down ideas as they occur rather than trying to remember them later
Writing tips (contd)
After writing the first draft, put it away for a few days. Review it when you have a fresh perspective
When commenting on others work in your paper keep in mind you dont need to prove others wrong in order to prove yourself right. Let the reader decide but present your argument well.
If possible, have someone unfamiliar with the topic review your paper. Ask for criticism not praise.
Writing tips (contd)
Read to write.
View writing as thinking.
Keep a writers notebook.
Develop the habit of writing. It should be a creative intellectual task not a stressful experience.
Write when you are most mentally alert.
Write in small, regular, amounts.
Writing tips (contd)
Learn APA style so you can do most of the formatting from memory.
Remember that writing involves effort and time, make the effort and take the time
Writing Literature Review – Conclusion
Use APA style/format
Have your work proofread before submitting
Must be a thorough review, reflected by the depth of discussion
Should begin prior to the implementation of any study
Avoiding Plagiarism
Academic honesty and integrity!
Proper citation of your sources in APA style can help you avoid plagiarism, which is a serious offense. It may result in anything from failure of the assignment to expulsion from school.
You are academically dishonest if:
Someone writes your paper for you
You purchase a paper
You copy a paper from online
You fail to cite your sources
Your present someone elses ideas as your own
Review of APA Style
Content & Organization of a Manuscript
Expressing Ideas & Reducing Bias in Language
Editorial Style
Reference List
Headings
The hierarchy of sections help orient the reader to the structure of the manuscript they function as an outline
Topics of equal importance have the same level of heading throughout the manuscript.
Start each section with the highest level of heading, even if one section may have fewer levels of subheading than another section
The introduction section does not have a heading
Headings – Continued
Previous editions used different heading hierarchies based on number of levels used. Sixth edition simplifies the process by using a standard top-down order.
As in an outline, avoid having only one subsection header and subsection within a section
Headings – Continued
Centered, Boldface, Uppercase and Lowercase Heading
(Level 1)
Flush Left, Boldface, Uppercase and Lowercase Heading
(Level 2)
Indented, boldface, lowercase paragraph heading ending with a period.
(Level 3)
Indented, boldface, italicized, lowercase paragraph heading ending with a period.
(Level 4)
Indented, italicized, lowercase paragraph heading ending with a period.
(Level 5)
Numbers
General rule is to use figures to express numbers 10 and above
The client is 25 years old
Mr. Roberts has had 12 arrests
Use words to express numbers below 10
Nora Edwards has had three previous marriages.
Exceptions
Always as numerals: Dates, Ages, Exact sums of money, scores and points on a scale, numbers and precise measurements
Each item on the Beck Depression Index is scored on a 5-point scale
The client receives $8 per completed hour.
Always as words:Any number that begins a sentence, common fractions
Twelve participants were involved in the focus groups
Back-to-back modifiers: use a combination of numerals and words, unless prevented by clarity
2 two-way interactions
The first two items (as opposed to the 1st 2 items or the first 2 items
Handling Quotes in Your Text
If directly quoted from another authors work, should be reproduced word for word
Short quotations (fewer than 40 words) are incorporated into the text, enclosed with double quotation marks.
Must be accompanied by a reference citation with a page number
Cite page number immediately after mid-sentence quotations
Example of a Short Quotation
Matkin (1985) stated the compensation principle and accident prevention form an intertwined relationship whereby one enhances the other (p. 29).
At end of sentence close quoted passage with quotation marks, cite the source in parentheses after marks, and end with the period or other punctuation outside the final parenthesis.
Example of Mid-Sentence Quote
He found Assessment or decision-making interviews are generally more focused (Zastrow, 1998, p. 86), than other types of interview formats.
In midsentence – End the passage with quotation marks, cite source in parentheses immediately after the quotation marks, and continue the sentence.
Use no other punctuation unless meaning of sentence requires it.
Example of Long Quote
Wang, Thomas, Chan, and Cheing (2003) stated the following:
Conjoint analysis has the potential to augment the study of attitudes toward disabilities in rehabilitation psychology research. Specifically, as an indirect measurement, conjoint analysis is less prone to social desirability effects. The trade-off method used in conjoint analysis to study peoples attitudes toward disability closely approximates human decision making in real life. Hence both conjoint measurements and conjoint analysis could increase the ability of rehabilitation psychology researchers to understand factors contributing to the formation of attitudes/preferences in multiple social contexts. (p. 200-201)
At end of block quote Cite the quoted source in parentheses after the final punctuation mark
Do not single space long quotes. Indent from the left margin without the usual paragraph indent. Additional paragraphs within a block quote are indented an additional .
Parenthetical (Within-Text) Citations
Authors(s) last name
Year of publication
Page number (if quoting)
Example:
(Chan, 2000, p. 17)
Parenthetical Citations Multiple Authors
2 authors cite both names separated by & Example:(Rubin & Roessler, 2002, p. 127)
3-5 authors cite all authors first time; after first time, use et al. Example:(Chan et al., 2000)
6 or more authors cite first authors name and et al.Example:(Rosenthal et al., 1992)
Parenthetical Citations Multiple Authors (contd)
When two different lists of authors with the same year shorten to the same form, cite as many names as needed to distinguish the two.
Ireys, Chernoff, DeVet, & Kim (2001)
Ireys, Chernoff, Stein, DeVet, & Silver (2001)
Shortens to:
Ireys, Chernoff, DeVet, et al. (2001) and Ireys, Chernoff, Stein, et al. (2001)
Parenthetical Citations Multiple Citations
Multiple sources from same author chronological order, separated by comma.
Example:(Thomas, 1998, 1999, in press)
Within same year: Example:(Chan, 1998a, 1998b, 1999, in press)
Parenthetical Citations Multiple Citations Continued
Multiple sources separated by semicolon, alphabetical order Example:(Chan, 1998; Pruett, 2001; Thomas, 1992)
Groups as Authors
When a group is the author of a source (ie corporations, associations, government agencies, study groups, etc.), the group name is usually spelled out each time it appears.
Some groups are spelled out the first time, and abbreviated thereafter
Give enough info for reader to be able to find it in the reference list
Long, cumbersome name; easily identifiable abbreviation
Ex: National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH, 2003); subsequently referred to as NIMH (2003)
Handling Parenthetical Citations
If the source has no known author, then use an abbreviated version of the title:
Full Title: California Cigarette Tax Deters Smokers
Citation: (California, 1999)
Handling Parenthetical Citations
A reference to a personal communication:
Source: email message from Hanoch Livneh
Citation: (H. Livneh, personal communication, November 22, 2002)
A general reference to a web siteSource: University of Wisconsin – Madison web site
Citation:(http://www.wisc.edu)
Reference Citations in Text
If author(s) name is part of narrative, cite only year of publication in parentheses
Hess, Marwitz and Kreutzer (2003) report treatment planning following a spinal cord injury should include methods for identifying cognitive deficits.
On rare occasions you may have the year and author with no parentheses.
In 2000 Walker compared reaction times
Keys to Parenthetical Citations
Readability
Keep references brief
Give only information needed to identify the source on your reference page
Do not repeat unnecessary information
Handling Quotes in Your Text
There are many different combinations and variations within APA citation format.
If you run into something unusual, look it up!
Reference List General Guidelines
On a separate page
References (the title) is centered on top line
Alphabetical list of works cited
If same author cited more than once, chronologically listed
Double spaced
Hanging indent
Titles of works and volume number in italics
Reference List Journal Article
Garske, G. G. (2000). The significance of rehabilitation counselor job
satisfaction. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling, 31(3), 10-13.
Shaw, L. R., & Tarvydas, V. M. (2001). The use of professional disclosure in rehabilitation counseling. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 45, 40-47.
Miller, L. J., & Donders, J. (in press). Prediction of educational outcome after pediatric traumatic brain injury. Rehabilitation Psychology.
Reference List Book
Smart, J. (2001). Disability, society, and the individual. Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen.
Parker, R. M., & Szymanski, E. M. (Eds.) (1998). Rehabilitation counseling: Basics and beyond. Austin, TX: PRO-ED.
American Psychiatric Association. (1994).Diagnostic and statistical manual of mentaldisorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
Reference List Book Chapter
Jaet, D. N., & McMahon, B. T. (1999). Implications of disability legislation for case managers. In F. Chan & M. J. Leahy (Eds.), Health care and disability case management (pp. 213 238). Lake Zurich,IL: Vocational Consultants Press.
